This document was prepared by Anuujin Gantulga, UNCTAD consultant. The author would like to thank Romain Perez, Rodrigo Carcamo, Justin Van de Ven, and Janvier Nkurunziza from the UNCTAD Commodities Branch, Division on International Trade and Commodities for their very valuable comments on earlier versions of this paper. 

The author also thanks Munkhtuguldur Batnasan, UNCTAD consultant, for conducting a field survey of the meat value chain in the Arkhangai, Dornod and Tuv provinces of Mongolia in May-November 2020, as well as Bolormaa Lkhagvasuren from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia, Battogtokh Ish-ochir from the Meat Association of Mongolia, and Battur Purevdorj from the Mongolia General Customs Administration for their assistance.