Decades of offshore mining and processing of mineral commodities have resulted in the United States becoming dependent on foreign sources for critical manufacturing inputs, both for defense systems and clean energy technologies. Its greatest dependence is on China, which rose to prominence as a reliable producer and processor of many low-cost mineral commodities in the 1990s and 2000s but has since pursued mercantilist policies that have led to market volatility, disputes at the World Trade Organization (WTO), economic coercion, and threats of geopolitical retaliation. Although activity to develop production and processing outside China has increased, the time it takes for such projects to bear fruit— sometimes a decade or more—means that the risk of interruptions in critical material supply chains may need to be addressed with greater urgency.